The Heritage Foundation recently reported some very frightening data on illegal migration and crime:
Increased Illegal Immigration Brings Increased Crime: Almost 2/3 of Federal Arrests Involve Noncitizens . . .
A 2021 Department of Justice report revealed that 64% of federal arrests in 2018 involved noncitizens, despite them comprising only 7% of the population at that time.
This has led the news media to obsess over crimes where an illegal migrant attacks an American citizen. But what if this is not true? Is it possible that illegal migration actually reduces America’s crime rate?
In a technical sense illegal migration may increase crime, at least if you view the illegal migration itself as a crime. But is that what people are going to infer from the Heritage headline? Or will they assume that illegal migrants are “rapists and murderers”?
I looked at the Justice Department report that the Heritage cited for its claim that illegal migrants have a high crime rate:
In 2018, 85% of federal arrests of non-U.S. citizens were for immigration offenses, and another 5% of arrests were immigration-related
Most arrests for ordinary crimes are made by state and local police officers. Federal police are primarily responsible for addressing issues at the border:
The portion of total federal arrests that took place in the five judicial districts along the U.S.-Mexico border almost doubled from 1998 (33%) to 2018 (65%) . . . Ninety-five percent of the increase in federal arrests across 20 years was due to immigration offenses
This doesn’t mean that Heritage is wrong, just that they aren’t providing the sort of data that would allow us to evaluate the actual threat posed by illegal migrants. The headline seems intentionally misleading.
A 2020 Cato study is somewhat more illuminating, reporting the following data for Texas:
In 2018, the illegal immigrant criminal conviction rate was 782 per 100,000 illegal immigrants, 535 per 100,000 legal immigrants, and 1,422 per 100,000 native‐born Americans. The illegal immigrant criminal conviction rate was 45 percent below that of native‐born Americans in Texas. The general pattern of native‐born Americans having the highest criminal conviction rates followed by illegal immigrants and then with legal immigrants having the lowest holds for all of other specific types of crimes such as violent crimes, property crimes, homicide, and sex crimes.
In recent years, I’ve been very disappointed by the quality of the research being done by Heritage. They seem to have latched on to the wave of populist nationalism that is sweeping the conservative movement in America.
I can’t say the Cato study is necessarily correct, but the more recent Heritage study does nothing to dissuade me from believing that illegal immigrants tend to reduce the crime rate in America. If a group of people add 10% to the population and only 5% to the crime total, then they have effectively reduced the probability of any given American being a victim of crime.
PS. Don’t take this post as an endorsement of illegal migration. I’d prefer to see much higher levels of legal migration and much lower levels of illegal migration. But much of the intense anger about illegal migration seem to have been generated by a sensationalist media that is more interested in making money than they are in accurately informing the public.
PPS. The fact that illegal migrants have a lower than average crime rate does not mean that every subset of illegal migrants is peaceful. It’s quite possible that illegal migrants that are from criminal gangs in Central America have a higher than average crime rate.
PPPS. Perhaps the children of illegal migrants have a high crime rate. But then how can we explain the relatively low murder rate in the heavily Hispanic border region of Texas?
READER COMMENTS
Monte
Feb 28 2024 at 12:23am
Nicely written, Scott. Very informative and objective. This is an important issue and deserves the attention it’s getting on this forum. Niggles:
I think most will draw a number of inferences from it, just as they might from the general statement, “Immigrants have a lower crime rate than native born Americans.” Primarily, that it runs the gamut from petty crimes to capital murder.
The data in this study are representative of crime rates up to and including 2020. I’m more interested in recent crime rate data, which is significantly higher for illegal immigrants (see U.S. Customs and Border Protection Criminal Non-Citizen Statistics, FY21-FY23). Even so, a study I linked to in a previous post calls into serious question Nowrasteh’s Cato Study numbers, as does this follow-up study.
I also think it’s important to point out that we can dilute the population and consequently, the crime rate, with an influx of immigrants, but that will still result in more overall crime.
This being a redux of Henderson’s post re: Friedman on the Contributions of Immigrants, I believe the following is pertinent (and sure to stir up a hornet’s nest). Jason Richwine (one of the contributing authors to the U.S. Immigration Study linked to above), in his PhD thesis, IQ and Immigration Policy”, proffered this:
I’m not sure what to make of it (or if I agree), but if accurate, immigrant contributions to our society over the long term are likely to be mediocre, at best.
Scott Sumner
Feb 28 2024 at 11:50am
Even if your corrected homicide rates are correct, the difference is rather modest, suggesting it’s not a major issue.
“I also think it’s important to point out that we can dilute the population and consequently, the crime rate, with an influx of immigrants, but that will still result in more overall crime.”
Why is that important to point out? Surely what matters is the crime rate, not the overall level of crime. Who has more total crime, Canada or Detroit?
“The average IQ of immigrants in the United States is substantially lower than that of the white native population,”
Why are you comparing immigrants to the white native population? Why not the total native population? That comparison makes zero sense.
I put very little weight on IQ data. We know that IQs change over time with education and assimilation. I would add that in recent years the US has moved toward much higher rates of immigration from Asia, a group that tends to score well on IQ tests.
TMC
Feb 28 2024 at 1:36pm
“Surely what matters is the crime rate, not the overall level of crime. ”
I’m not sure that’s true. There’s an argument for either way, but it’s pretty valid that we’d have fewer crimes without the illegal aliens.
Scott Sumner
Feb 29 2024 at 1:43pm
“There’s an argument for either way”
Really? I’d love to hear it.
TMC
Mar 1 2024 at 9:52am
Well, we would literally have fewer crimes without the illegal aliens for starts.
Jose Pablo
Mar 1 2024 at 10:19pm
Well, we would literally have fewer crimes without the illegal aliens for starts.
Actually, we don’t. Without the illegal aliens (if their crime rate is lower) we would have more crimes with American born victims.
You just need to assume:
a) that illegal aliens would be also victims of crimes committed by American-born criminals in a proportion equal to their share of the total population
b) that for any illegal alien that become the victim of a crime committed by an American born criminal, one American born victim will be spare (compare to the alternative scenario of zero illegal immigration). For this to be true, you just have to assume that illegal immigration does not increase the American-born criminals’ productivity
These are both very reasonable hypotheses.
If illegal immigrants have a lower crime rate, they will spare more american-born victims (by becoming themselves the victims of domestic criminals) that the number of American-born victims illegal immigrants will create due to the presence of criminals among them.
This will result in less American-born victims in absolute terms that in the no-illegal immigrants scenario.
TMC
Mar 2 2024 at 12:14pm
Jose, that is a reasonable argument. But you are talking about crimes against Americans only. Total crimes would increase. Crimes against the illegal aliens count too.
Jose Pablo
Mar 2 2024 at 1:53pm
Total crimes would increase. Crimes against the illegal aliens count too.
No. Illegal aliens will also suffer less crime! Total number of crimes will decrease (compare to the scenario with no illegal immigration)
For this to happen you only need the crime rate to be higher in their countries of origin than for American-born criminals. A very reasonable hypothesis in lots of cases.
This is one of the good things about immigration. Everybody is better off.
Monte
Feb 28 2024 at 5:44pm
So…”modest differences” is an argument for endorsing the Cato study over the CIS study with the corrected homicide rates?
Perhaps you could arrange a town hall with the families of those murdered by illegal immigrants and remind them that we shouldn’t allow isolated incidents of this kind to inform our immigration policy. I’m sure they’d be sympathetic to your insistence that what matters is the crime rate, not the overall level of crime. And let’s just set aside the fact that those who committed the murders shouldn’t have been here in the first place.
You’d have to ask Jason Richwine. But you bring up a good point. I wonder what that comparison might reveal? I’m certain if the result were the same, you wouldn’t be any more persuaded to alter your opinion about illegal immigration that I would.
You might, but many consider it to be an important metric having high statistical reliability. But feel free to dismiss it out of hand if it strengthens your argument.
How much time? Richwine’s research suggests several generations. So we should open our borders and let education and assimilation of immigrants take their course just to see how things turn out 100 years from now?
Scott Sumner
Feb 29 2024 at 1:44pm
First you mischaracterize what I said. Then you engage in a crude emotional argument that is beneath contempt.
Monte
Feb 29 2024 at 4:56pm
I’m sorry you feel that way. Mischaracterizations and misunderstandings happen all the time over the course of a normal debate or discussion. Perhaps it’s just me, but I fail to see where I engaged in crude, emotional dialogue. You can be sure I will exercise a great deal of discretion in responding to any of your future posts or comments.
Have a good day, sir.
Floccina
Feb 29 2024 at 4:18pm
One thing that should be adjusted for in looking at Hispanic crime is that there is a large difference in average age
And a significant percent of illegal immigrants today are from China and have very low rates of crime.
It is surprising to me that Hispanic crime rates are as low as they are considering how high crime rates are in Latin America but looking at crime rates in El Paso TX they do seem to be pretty low, comparable to non-Hispanic whites when adjusted for age.
john hare
Feb 28 2024 at 4:41am
PPS. The fact that illegal migrants have a lower than average crime rate does not mean that every subset of illegal migrants is peaceful. It’s quite possible that illegal migrants that are from criminal gangs in Central America have a higher than average crime rate.
I also wonder how much of the crime involved is due to the “War on Drugs”. that reprises prohibition as a crime source. That being clearly a cross-border situation that likely skews the statistics. This being together with my opinion that many of the gangs are financed by the drug profits and would wither away if the members had to work for a living.
Lizard Man
Feb 28 2024 at 7:37am
From what I have read, illegal immigrants and their families tend to put a strain on local and state budgets, even when perhaps on net they pay more in federal taxes than they get in benefits. So if an area gets more illegal immigrants, it is unlikely that they are going to be hiring more patrol officers, detectives, etc. So even if illegal immigrants have a lower crime rate, it doesn’t stand to reason that they make cities where they move safer, as the police force and criminal justice system are spread more thin. That illegal immigration makes US cities safer isn’t something Sumner claimed, but might be an implication that he is hoping that readers draw.
Matthias
Feb 28 2024 at 8:03am
If an area gets more people, and more economic activity, why wouldn’t they hire more patrol officers and detectives?
Lizard Man
Feb 28 2024 at 10:31am
It depends on how taxes work. But if you have an area with progressive taxes, and high levels of government benefits for the poor, then more working poor residents is going to drain your budget, and leave you with less money to spend on policing. And in most places in the US, police officers are funded by local taxes. So if the immigrants don’t pay more in local taxes than they consume in locally funded benefits (such as in public education, sometimes housing assistance, etc.) they reduce the resources localities can spend on police.
Jose Pablo
Mar 2 2024 at 2:26pm
If this is what really worries you about immigration (and not a mere rationalization of your instinctive opposition), a “keyhole” solution can be readily implemented. Impose a fee on aspiring immigrants. Let’s say $5,000 per person (in the ballpark of what human traffickers will charge for bringing you to the US) and/or restrict their access to social services.
It is illogical to condemn individuals to misery and potential death solely on the basis that, if allowed entry, we might struggle to afford them the ‘standard’ safety net we provide. Such a stance lacks both compassion and rational justification.
Lizard Man
Mar 3 2024 at 9:27pm
That sounds great to me, and a lot like a more humane version of Singapore’s guest worker policies. US voters would never allow it. The US is largely stuck with the laws that it already has, and so any changes to immigration in the US are limited to those that can be made within the discretion that existing laws allow. It seems to me that Democratic politicians that have to deal with the day to day of the US’ current surge in immigration, like NYC mayor Eric Adams, are genuine and sincere about their concerns with the costs it imposes on localities.
https://www.politico.com/news/2023/08/09/eric-adams-new-york-migrants-cost-00110472
Jose Pablo
Mar 4 2024 at 7:05pm
Nah!, don’t worry. The presidential candidates will engage in a clear, orderly, and meaningful debate on this issue during the presidential debates, as they did with other relevant topics on television in 2020.
Once in office, the Republican president will effectively articulate his rational and compassionate immigration policy, leveraging his trademark ability to break down complex issues into simpler components. The American rural voter, swayed by his “amazing” eloquence, will undoubtedly follow his “amazing” political leadership.
Regarding Adams, he should recognize that the only way to transform a problem involving 100,000 individuals into a $12 billion predicament (equating to $120,000 per person) is through the involvement of politicians. California’s expenditure of over $20 billion WITHOUT resolving the homeless problem should serve as a cautionary tale for him.
The inability of the public sector to solve an issue does not, by any means, imply that the real problem is the problem itself.
Jon Murphy
Feb 28 2024 at 9:15am
I have a thought. But I present this as nothing more than a possibility, and one for which I have no evidence to support, so take it for what it’s worth.
What if illegal immigrants are responsible for relatively more crime because they are illegal. However, the reason is not because illegal immigrants are inherently prone to more crime pse se, but because being illegal makes it difficult to earn an honest living.
In other words, since a worker is illegal, it is relatively more difficult to get a job and earn a living. But, since the needs of living never go away, illegal immigrants are relatively more likely to commit property crimes (theft, etc).
So, it’s possible that illegal immigrants do commit crimes at a higher rate, but it’s a byproduct of the system rather than immigration per se.
Again, all this is pure speculation.
Vivian Darkbloom
Feb 28 2024 at 9:44am
“So, it’s possible that illegal immigrants do commit crimes at a higher rate, but it’s a byproduct of the system rather than immigration per se.”
So, those illegal immigrants bear no responsibility for the fact that they willfully violcated US immigration laws and are not legally in the United States? It is a strange sort of logic that places the blame on “the system” rather than the individual for that situation.
Would you say that those on the run and committing bank robberies to support themselves (shall we say, for example, the members of the Symbionese Liberation Army) and thus commit crimes at a higher rate is a byproduct of “the system”?
Scott Sumner
Feb 28 2024 at 11:54am
This is a silly comparison. Two acts can both be illegal in a technical sense (consider jaywalking) while one his highly immoral and the other is a victimless crime. You’ll need to do better with your analogies.
Vivian Darkbloom
Feb 28 2024 at 1:36pm
Sorry you don’t like the analogy. But, the simple fact is that illegal immigrants make a choice to break US immigration law. If they are in the US illegally and therefore, as per Jon Murphy, may be more inclined to break the law, they put themselves in that situation and their criminal acts would not be the fault of “the system”.
Coming to the US illegally and remaining illegally is not “technically illegal”. I think you need to do better with your silly comparisons with jaywalking!
Scott Sumner
Feb 28 2024 at 4:14pm
The point is that it’s a trivial violation of the law, which doesn’t hurt the public any more than jaywalking. If I lived in a developing country I might wish to illegally migrate to the US, and that wouldn’t make me a bad person.
TMC
Feb 28 2024 at 5:11pm
Jaywalking is a bad analogy. Maybe breaking and entering.
vince
Feb 29 2024 at 5:09pm
Bank robbery is not such a bad analogy. If someone steals $100k from it, who is the victim? No one in particular. The cost is spread out, like it is with illegal immigrants how are supported by taxpayers.
Jose Pablo
Mar 1 2024 at 10:17am
In your example the “robber” is the government not the illegal immigrants.
Immigration is a victimless crime. The tax code is not (a victimless crime).
And if been supported by taxpayers is a crime, then politicians are all criminals. And midwestern farmers too.
vince
Mar 1 2024 at 5:11pm
Again, there’s a difference between LEGAL immigration and ILLEGAL immigration. How many illegal immigrants are in compliance with the tax code? Do we have any clue? We can’t even properly estimate the number of them.
It’s fine to talk about LEGAL immigration policy, but it’s surreal to have a discussion touting the benefits of ILLEGAL immigration.
Jose Pablo
Mar 1 2024 at 10:29pm
Again, there’s a difference between LEGAL immigration and ILLEGAL immigration.
Of course, there’s is a difference! a huge one!!
Legal immigration is a totally arbitrary and unnecessary lengthy burdensome process.
Illegal immigration, on the other hand, is a moral wreck. Just like it was “illegal running away from your slave owner” or “illegal interracial marriage”. And these two were also illegal at some point.
vince
Mar 2 2024 at 1:40pm
So you are opposed to LEGAL immigration and also opposed to ILLEGAL immigration? What does that leave?
No comment on tax compliance?
Please, enough of the false analogies.
Jon Murphy
Feb 28 2024 at 12:08pm
I see what you are saying. Let me try to rephrase my point.
I am making essentially a “crimes of poverty” argument.
People who come illegally are shut of from many legal ways of earning a living. It’s difficult for them to participate in the market: it can be challenging to own property, drive a car, etc.
Consequently, they may need to turn to some forms of crime (like theft) in order to survive.
If they could come legally and thus legally participate in the market, they would not have to turn to such criminal behaviors to survive; they’d be able to earn an honest living.
Thus: because the immigration system does not allow them to earn a living legally, they may have to turn to illegal means. If the immigration system were to allow them to earn a living legally, then they would not need to turn to such crimes.
So, if the problem is with the immigration system excluding them from the market, then reform could lead to lower crime rates even if illegal immigrants are responsible for more crimes!
Again, I wish to emphasize I am doing a thought exercise here. I have absolutely no evidence one way or the other. So, my reasoning could be correct but irrelevant. Or I could be incorrect. I’m just thinking out loud.
Vivian Darkbloom
Feb 28 2024 at 1:47pm
Thanks for the clarification; however, I understood your point, such as it was, the first time.
Apropos our recent discussion of French literature, this sounds like the Jean Valjean defense. Thomas Piketty must have used that somewhere in his economic arguments!
Somewhat less literary, and surely before your time, would be the Flip Wilson defense—“The devil made me do it”!
There should be, and there certainly is, scope in “the system” to consider “mitigating circumstances”; however, I’m not ready to go down the slippery slope and blame “the system” when someone commits a crime.
Jon Murphy
Feb 28 2024 at 3:16pm
Ah! I see the problem was me being a woolhead and I missed your point.
Yeah, I did not mean to imply a Jean Valjean defense. I would argue that those people were still guilty and should be punished. Just because the incentive is to do X, it does not excuse punishment is X is a crime. Incentives are not mind control.
Rather, I just meant to consider whether the current immigration system, by making working so difficult, was also leading to more non-immigration crime. I was considering a situation where legalizing more immigration could reduce crime even if illegal immigrants commit more crimes than natives.
Vivian Darkbloom
Feb 28 2024 at 3:37pm
I’m not sure we agree, but never mind.
If you believe the statistics cited(I don’t for a variety of reasons too numerous to mention with my finger on the iPhone), your desire for less crime wouldn’t be solved by making more illegal immigrants legal. Per the stats cited, the crime rate would go up! So, perhaps the solution is to just continue tolerating jaywalking across the border.😀
Jon Murphy
Feb 28 2024 at 4:09pm
I’m just working to understand your criticism, which is a fair criticism. My own opinions on immigration are unrelated to crime (I think we should have more permissive immigration regardless of crime rates. To punish some people because of an accidental relationship to criminals is unjust). I’m just making an admittedly flawed thought experiment here.
Thomas L Hutcheson
Feb 28 2024 at 9:17am
Not “sensationalist media” but lying politicians.
Daniel Carroll
Feb 28 2024 at 9:40am
It’s well documented that immigrants have lower crime rates than the general population (excluding immigration-related crimes), despite that they have higher likelihood of arrest and conviction for committing a crime. This is not the first time a conservative group has focused on federal arrests for immigration crimes to “prove” that immigrants are bringing a crime wave to the US.
According to Justice, Federal arrests were up in 2022 after hitting a 20-year low, with about 24% of those being immigration-related crimes, 21% drug-related (which was down) and 23% jumping bail. Source. That’s 96.9k arrests, or about 1.3% of the 7.13 million arrests in the US (also bouncing off a 20-year low). Chart About half of Federal arrests result in conviction.
So, hyperventilating over Federal arrest rates seems almost criminal.
Mactoul
Feb 28 2024 at 10:19am
Is the number of illegal migrants known to nearest one million, or ten million– to be able to say that their conviction rate is precisely 782 per 100 thousand?
Mactoul
Feb 28 2024 at 10:27am
Is the proposition “Migrants reduce crime rate” supposed to be a universal possessing logical necessity out of the nature of things, such that it is true everywhere and at all times?
So, Asian immigrants in Europe have lower crime rate than native Europeans and European immigrants to Asia have lower crime rate than native Asians?
Or does it express a contingent truth of US at a particular time?
But then it shouldn’t have been put in a universal form.
Scott Sumner
Feb 28 2024 at 11:57am
“So, Asian immigrants in Europe have lower crime rate than native Europeans and European immigrants to Asia have lower crime rate than native Asians?”
I don’t know if that’s true, but it’s not implausible. Immigrants have a much stronger incentive to avoid arrest than does the native born population. (They wish to avoid deportation)
Having said that, I suspect that at least some immigrant groups have a higher crime rate—for instance North Africans in France.
Jose Pablo
Feb 29 2024 at 8:08pm
Having said that, I suspect that at least some immigrant groups have a higher crime rate—for instance North Africans in France.
I suspect that your suspicion will not hold once you correct by the socioeconomic status of immigrants.
At least the interpretation of your suspicion that could lead to think that North Africans in France are more “culturally inclined” to commit crimes.
The origin of immigrants wouldn’t be the driver of the higher crime rate (a valid/probable conclusion of your suspicion). The socioeconomic status of immigrants will be (independently of their origin).
Richard W Fulmer
Feb 28 2024 at 11:46am
The article’s title and the article itself ask two very different questions:
“Does illegal immigration help to reduce crime?”
“Is it possible that illegal migration actually reduces America’s crime rate?”
The answer to the first question is certainly “no,” while the answer to the second is probably “yes.” If a single illegal immigrant commits a crime, then illegal immigration increases crime. However, if illegal immigrants are less likely to commit crimes than are American citizens, then illegal immigration reduces the crime rate.
Mark Barbieri
Feb 28 2024 at 12:44pm
I believe that the immigrant crime rate would be significantly lower if we let them migrate here legally with the threat of being expelled for committing any significant crime.
spencer
Feb 28 2024 at 4:19pm
You assume that an equal number of illegal immigrants are arrested, as opposed to escaping back across the border.
vince
Feb 29 2024 at 12:17pm
There’s more to crime than arrests.
https://www.npr.org/2023/04/29/1172775448/people-murder-unsolved-killings-record-high
Jose Pablo
Feb 29 2024 at 7:59pm
For this fact to affect the Cato report’s conclusions, you have to assume that crimes committed by immigrants have a lower clearing rate that crimes committed by American-born criminals.
At first impression I don’t clearly see why this should be the case.
vince
Feb 29 2024 at 10:14pm
It’s certainly likely to be easier to search out a legal resident or a citizen than an illegal immigrant.
Jose Pablo
Mar 1 2024 at 10:34pm
It is certainly easier for a legal resident to fly away that for an undocumented illegal immigrant.
Jose Pablo
Feb 29 2024 at 7:55pm
From a quick reading of the Cato report it seems that it fails to correct the conviction rates by taking into account the socioeconomic status of criminals.
Since conviction rates tend to be higher among people of low socioeconomic status and immigrants tend to belong to this group, the comparison of immigrants vs American-born conviction rates is normally even more favorable to immigrants once this correction is made.
Alex Nowrasteh
Mar 1 2024 at 10:13am
The homicide conviction rate for illegal immigrants was 2.4 per 100,000 illegal immigrants in 2015, which is lower than the homicide conviction rate of 2.8 per 100,000 for native‐born Americans. Legal immigrants still have the lowest homicide conviction rate at 1.1 per 100,000 legal immigrants. Those rates are similar across the years for which data are available.
https://www.cato.org/blog/illegal-immigrants-have-low-homicide-conviction-rate-setting-record-straight-illegal-immigrant
Monte
Mar 1 2024 at 6:57pm
See Cato’s Brazenly False Claim About Our Illegal Immigrant Crime Research.
Richwine and CIS has yet to respond to your latest point about metadata (among other things). It will be interesting to see how this plays out. I’m just interested in the truth.
In either case, thank you for all the hard work and research and keeping this important issue in the headlines. It has been most educational.
Alexander Nowrasteh
Mar 6 2024 at 4:45pm
You’re welcome, here’s my response today to CIS’s follow up.
https://www.cato.org/blog/center-immigration-studies-still-wrong-about-illegal-immigrant-crime-texas
Scott Sumner
Mar 1 2024 at 8:12pm
Alex, Thanks for that report.
Alexander Nowrasteh
Mar 6 2024 at 4:46pm
You’re welcome, and here’s another follow up.
https://www.cato.org/blog/center-immigration-studies-still-wrong-about-illegal-immigrant-crime-texas
Ezra K
Mar 11 2024 at 2:52am
Considering that 54% of murders in the U.S. go unsolved, it could be that people who are undocumented and living illegally in the U.S., and therefore harder to identify as murderers, that may be responsible for committing those murderers.
Ezra K
Mar 11 2024 at 3:02am
That’s more than half of all murders going unsolved and I would tend to think that many other crimes also go unsolved or even unreported. It is usually communities where undocumented people live that you find people unwilling to talk to police, which makes it difficult to solve crimes. This needs to be taken into consideration.
Comments are closed.